DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH

486.  Study the following sentences :---

     1). Mohan said, " I am working hard for the examination."
     2). Mohan said that he was working hard for the examination.


    *) In the first sentence, the actual words of the speaker are quoted. This is called
        Direct Speech.

   *) In the second sentence, we give the substance of what the speaker said or without
       quoting his exact words. This is called Indirect ( Reported ) Speech. 





           Rules for changing Direct Speech into Indirect

487. When changing the Direct into Indirect certain grammatical changes have to be made.
        The following rules will make the whole thing clear :--- 


RULE 1.  If  the Reporting Verb is a Past Tense, the tense of the Verb in the Reported
                 Speech must be changed to the Past Tense. To work out this rule in detail, the
                 following special rules must be observed :---





(1) The Present tense ( in the Reported Speech ) must be changed to corresponding
      Past form. In other words, we should change :--

    *) Reporting Verb                            *) Reported Speech

Direct.     : He said " Tom shall come "                               ......Present.
Indirect.  : He said that Tom should come.                         .......Past.


Direct.     : He said, " Bush will come."                                .....Present.
Indirect.  : He said that Bush would come.                          .....Past.


Direct.     : He said, " Sofia may come. "                              .....Present.
Indirect.  : He said that Sofia might come.                           .....Past.


Direct.     : He said, " Kareena can come. "                          .....Present.
Indirect.  : He said that Kareena could come.                      .....Past.


Direct.     : He said, " John comes."                                       .....Simple Present.
Indirect.  : He said that John came.                                       ......Simple Past


Direct.     : He said, " Jack is coming."                                  .....Present Contin.
Indirect.  : He said that Jack was coming.                             .....Past Contin.


Direct.     : He said, " Jerry has come."                                  .....Pres. Perfect.
Indirect.  : He said that Jerry had come.                                .....Past Perfect.


Direct.     : He said, " Sweety has been coming."                    .....Pres. Per. Con.
Indirect.  : He said that Sweety had been coming.                  .....Past. Per. Con.







(2) The Simple past Tense ( in the Reported Speech ) is often, but not always, changed
      to the Past Perfect ; as,

Direct.      :  Ali said, " I drank water after the meal."
Indirect.   :  Ali said that he drank water after the meal.  (past )


Direct.      :  He said, " Ali was playing hockey."
Indirect.   :  He said that Ali had been playing hockey.






(3) The Past Continuous tense ( in the Reported Speech ) must be changed to the Past
      Perfect Continuous ; as,

Direct.      :  He said, " Sita was dancing."
Indirect.   :  He said that Sita had been dancing.


Direct.      :  He said, " Ali was playing hockey."
Indirect.   :  He said that Ali had been playing hockey.







NOTE :-- Exception to Rule 1. If the Reported Speech relates to some universal or
                 habitual fact, the Simple Present tense in the Reported Speech remains 
                 unchanged ; as,

Direct.      :  He said, " Man is mortal."
Indirect.   :  He said that man is mortal.


Direct.      :  He proved, " The earth is round. "
Indirect.   :  He proved that the earth is round.


Direct.      :  Sita said, " Virtue is its own reward."
Indirect.   :  Sita said that virtue is its own reward.






RULE 2. If the reporting Verb is a Present or Future tense, the tense of the verb in the
                Reported Speech is not changed at all.

Direct.      :  The servant says, " Tea is ready."
Indirect.   :  The servant says that tea is ready.


Direct.      :  The teacher will say, " The boy was dull."
Indirect.   :  The teacher will say that the boy was dull.





RULE 3. ( Change in Pronouns and Possessive Adjectives ). Pronouns and Possessive
                Adjectives, of the First and Second Persons in Direct Speech, are changed
                into the Third Person in Direct Speech.

              I,     you (singular ),    my,     your become he,    she,    his,    her.
              We, you (plural),        our,     your become they,           their.

Direct.      :  Rama said, " I am ill."
Indirect.   :  Rama said that he was ill.


Direct.      :  He said, " My pen is lost."
Indirect.   :  He said that his pen was lost.


Direct.      :  Ali said to the beggar. " I know you."
Indirect.   :  Ali told the beggar that he knew him.


Direct.      :  Rama said to the girl, " I know you and your aunt."
Indirect.   :  Rama told the girl that he knew her and her aunt.


Direct.      :  I said to the boys, " You should do your duty."
Indirect.   :  I told the boys that they should do their duty.






NOTE 1.--- If the person addressed reports the speech, the Second Person is changed
                    to First

Direct.      :  He said to me, " You are stupid."
Indirect.   :  He told me that I was stupid.






NOTE 2.--- Sometimes the Pronoun he in Indirect Speech stands for several different
                    persons. In such cases we should either insert in brackets the names of the
                    persons referred to, after the Pronouns, or use Nouns instead of Pronouns,
                    where possible.

Direct.      :  He said, " I approve of your partnership with him."
Indirect.   :  He said that he approved of his partnership with him.
                                                    [ OR ]
                     He said that he approved of his ( Mohan's ) partnership with him ( Sohan ).






RULE 4. In the Reported Speech, the words expressing nearness are changed into words
                expressing distance.

Direct.      :  The teacher said, " I am busy now. "
Indirect.   :  The teacher said that he was busy then.


Direct.      :  He said, " It may rain tomorrow."
Indirect.   :  He said that it might rain the next day.


Direct.      :  He said, " Last night I met a fool."
Indirect.   :  He said that he had met a fool the previous night.


Direct.      :  He said, " I met this man two days ago. "
Indirect.   :  He said that he had met that man two days before.







NOTE ----- Bear in mind that if this, here, now, etc., refer to things present before the
                    person during the delivery of the speech, no change is required in the 
                    Reported Speech.

Direct.      : Afzal said, " This is the pen I like. "
Indirect.   : Afzal said that this ( the pen in his hand ) was the pen he liked.


Direct.      : The leader said, " I will fight now or never."
Indirect.   : The leader said that he would fight now or never.


Direct.      :  Ashok said, " Here is the stick we have been looking for. "
Indirect.   :  Ashok said ( pointing to the stick in hand ) that here was the stick they had 
                     been looking for.




                                     1. Statements


488. Statements in the Indirect Speech are generally introduced by the Conjunction that.

Direct.      :  You said to me, " I do not think I can oblige you again in this way."
Indirect.   :  You told me that you did not think you could oblige me again in that
                     way.


Direct.      : He said, " The rain that fell last night prevented me from coming to this place.
Indirect.   : He said that the rain that had fallen the previous night had prevented him 
                    from going to that place.


Direct.      :  He said to me, " I have never seen such a lazy boy as you are."
Indirect.   :  He told me that he had never seen such a lazy boy as I was.


Direct.      :  The teacher said to the girl, " I know you and your mother."
Indirect.   :  The teacher told the girl that he knew her and her mother.


Direct.      :  I said to her, " All your faults will be pardoned if you confess them."
Indirect.   :  I told her that all her faults would be pardoned if she confessed them.


Direct.      :  The teacher said to the boys, " I shall prove now that the earth moves 
                      round the sun."
Indirect.   :  The teacher told the boys that he would prove then that the earth moves
                      around the sun.


Direct.      :  He said to me, " You have made a great mistake in your statement."
Indirect.   :  He told me that I had made a great mistake in my statement.






489. Study carefully the following examples :--

Indirect.   :  He told me that he could easily beat me in the long jump.
Direct.      :  He said to me, " I can easily beat you in the long jump."


Indirect.   :  the teacher told us that we were dull and lazy.
Direct.      :  The teacher said to us, " You are dull and lazy."


Indirect.   :  Ali admitted that he had acted foolishly in what he did.
Direct.      : " I Have acted foolishly, " said Ali, " in what I did."




                                     


                                     2. Questions

490. In reporting a Question in the Indirect Speech---

(1) the introductory Verb is changed to asked, inquired, demanded, etc.

(2) Whether or if is used after such introductory Verb whenever the direct question
      admits of one of two answers ( yes or No ).

(3) the Note of Interrogation which is placed after Questions in the direct form is not
      placed after questions in the Indirect form.


Direct.      :  He said to me, " DO you know the way ? "
Indirect.   :  He inquired of me if I knew the way.


Direct.      :  The teacher said to me, " What are you doing?"
Indirect.   :  The teacher asked me what I was doing.


Direct.      :  Ali said to me, " When will you return ?"
Indirect.   : Ali asked me when I would return.


Direct.      :  He said to me, " Why did you write to me such an insulting letter?"
Indirect.   :  He demanded of me why I had written such an insulting letter to him.


Direct.      :  He said to us." Will you listen to such a fool ?"
Indirect.   :  He asked us whether we would listen to such a fool.






489. Study the following examples :--

Indirect.   :  He inquired of us whether we were going away that day.
Direct.      :  He said to us, " Are you going away today?"


Indirect.   :  He asked me whether I played football.
Direct       :  He said to me, " Do you play football?"


Indirect.   :  He demanded of me why I had insulted his brother.
Direct.      :  He said to me, " Why did you insult my brother ?"






                    3. Commands and Requests

492. In reporting a Command or Request in the Indirect Speech :--

(1) The introductory Verb is changed into request, beg, implore, entreat, order,
      command, advise, threaten, etc.


(2) The Verb in the Reported Speech is put in the Infinitive.

Direct.      :  He said to me, " Give me your pencil."
Indirect.   :  He asked me to give him my pencil.

Direct.      :  He said to the students, " Do not make a noise."
Indirect.   :  He forbade the students to make a noise.

Direct.      :  I said to the teacher, " Please explain this question to me. "
Indirect.   :  I requested the teacher to explain that question to me.

Direct.      :  He said to the servant, " Leave my house at once."
Indirect.   :  He ordered his servant to leave his house at once.

Direct.      :  The teacher said to the students, " Work hard and be regular in your studies."
Indirect.   :  The teacher advised the students to work hard and be regular in their studies.

Direct.      :   The beggar said to the gentleman, " Help me to get some suitable employment."
Indirect.   :   The beggar entreated the gentleman to help him to get some suitable 
                       employment.


Direct.      :  The rebel said to the king, " Pardon my fault, Sir."
Indirect.   :  The rebel begged the King to pardon his fault.


Direct.      :  " Shoot the prisoner, " said the tyrant.
Indirect.   :   The tyrant commanded them to shoot the prisoner.




493. When ' let ' in the Direct Speech expressess a proposal or suggestion, we may use
        should and change the Reporting Verb into propose or suggest.

Direct.      :  She said to us, " Let us have some music."
Indirect.   :  She proposed ( or suggested ) to us that we should have some music.





But when ' let ' does not express a proposal it should be changed into might or might be
allowed, or into some other Verb according to the sense.

Direct.      :  He said, " Let me have some tea."
Indirect.   :  He wished that he might have some tea.

Direct.      :  Ali said to his friends, " Let me do my work, please."
Indirect.   :  Ali requested his friends that he might be allowed to do his work.




494. Study the following examples :---

Indirect.  :  The captain commanded his men to stand at ease.
Direct      :  The captain said to his men, " Stand at ease."

Indirect.  :  He proposed to us that we should return home.
Direct      :  He said to us, " Let us return home."

Indirect.   :  He ordered his servant to do as he was told.
Direct       :  He said to his servant, " Do as you are told."

Indirect.   :  He requested him to wait there till he returned.
Direct.      :  He said to him, " Please wait here till I return."





                             4.Exclamations and Wishes

495. In reporting a Wish or an Exclamation in the Indirect Speech :---

(1) The introductory Verb is changed into wish, bless, pray, cry, exclaim, declare, etc.,
      with such phrases as with regret, with delight or joy, with sorrow, where necessary.

(2) The Interjections and Exclamations such as oh, well, hurrah, alas, bravo, curse it,
      are omitted and their sense is expressed by means of phrases.


Direct.      :  " What a terrible storm it is ! " he said
Indirect.   :     He exclaimed that it was a terrible storm.


Direct.      :  She said, " Alas! how foolish I have been ! "
Indirect.   :  She confessed with regret that she had been very foolish.


Direct.      :  He said, " Good-bye, friends."
Indirect.   :  He bade good-bye to his friends.


Direct.      :  She said, " O, for a glass of cold water !"
Indirect.   :  She cried out for a glass of cold water.


Direct.      :  He said, " God save the king !"
Indirect.   :  He prayed that God might save the king.


Direct.      :  He said, " How I wish they would come !"
Indirect.   :  He exclaimed that he wishes they would come.


Direct.      :  They said, " Hurrah ! we have won the match."
Indirect.   :  They exclaimed with delight that they had won the match.


Direct.      :  He said, " farewell, my countrymen."
Indirect.   :  He bade farewell to all his countrymen.


Direct.      :  He said, " May God bless her with a long life and prosperity !"
Indirect.   :  He prayed that God might bless her with a long life and prosperity.


Direct.      :  He said, " Bravo ! You have done well."
Indirect.   :  He applauded him saying that he had done well.




496. Study the following examples :---

Indirect.      :  He prayed that God might bless me.
Direct.         :  He said to me, " May God bless you !"


Indirect.      :  He exclaimed with sorrow that he was undone.
Direct.         :  He said, " Alas! I am undone !"


Indirect.      :  He exclaimed with delight that his friend had passed.
Direct.         :  He said, " Hurrah ! my friend has passed."


Indirect.      :  He confessed with regret that he perished by the people he had made.
Direct.         :  He said, " Alas ! I perish by the people I made."

THE SEQUENCE OF TENSE

483. The principle in accordance with which the Tense of the Verb in the Subordinate
        Clause follows the Tense of the Verb in the Principal Clause is known as the
        Sequence of Tenses.


484. There are two main rules governing the Sequence of Tenses :---

RULE 1).  If there is a Past Tense in the Principal Clause, it must be followed by a 
                  Past Tense in the Subordinate Clause.


Examples :---

(*) RULE 2). A Present or Future Tense in the Principal Clause may be followed by any
                      tense required by the sense in the Subordinate Clause.


(*) Examples :--

                                  (*)   Special Rules    (*)

485. Besides these two main rules, there are three special rules :---

(*) RULE 3. (Exception to Rule 1 ) : -  A Past Tense in the Principal Clause may be followed by                                                                   a Present tense in the Subordinate Clause when the                                                                           Subordinate Clause expresses some habitual or 
                                                                  universal  fact.


(*) Examples :--

      1). The teacher taught us that the earth is round.
      2). The King said that all men are mortal.
      3). He learnt from his experience that pride has a fall.
      4). Galileo proved that the earth moves round the sun.




(*) RULE 4. When the Subordinate Clause is introduced by some Conjunction of
                    comparison, e.g. than, Rule 1 does not apply at all. Any tense can be followed
                    by any tense.

NOTE :-- If the comparison is expressed by as well as instead of than, the same rule
                 holds good. Any tense may be followed by any tense, according to the sense
                 intended by the speaker.

(*) Example :-  1) She likes me as well as she liked him.
                           2) She liked me as well as she likes him.
                           3) She will like me as well as she liked him.





(*) RULE 5 . ( Conjunctions of Purpose ). When the Subordinate Clause is introduced by a
                       Conjunction of Purpose, the following two rules must be observed :--

(1) if the Verb in the Principal Clause is in the Present or Future Tense, the Verb in the
      Subordinate Clause must be expressed by may ( Present Tense ).

(2) If the Verb in the Principal Clause is in the past tense, the Verb in the Subordinate Clause           must be expressed by ' might'  ( Past Tense ).

      1). He worked hard that he might succeed.
      2). He was working hard that he might succeed.
      3). He had worked hard that he might succeed.
      4). He had been working hard that he might succeed.



NOTE ;-- If the Conjunction introducing the Subordinate the Subordinate Clause is lest,
                 the Verb in the Subordinate Clause is always should, whatever may be tense of
                 the Verb in the Principal Clause .

                             

TRANSFORMATION OF SENTENCES ( 2 )

1). Conversion of Simple Sentences into Compound Sentences

476. Simple Sentences may be changed into Double Sentences by taking a word or phrase,
        and expanding it into a Co-ordinate Clause.

 (1) Using the Conjunctions and, both...and, not only....but also ; as,

        *) Simple.       :   Seeing a bear  coming , he lay on the ground.
            Compound :   He saw a bear coming, and lay on the ground.


           Simple         :    She received praise and reward.
           Compound  :    She was both praised  and rewarded.

       
          Simple          :    Besides being industrious he is wise.
          Compound   :    He is not only industrious but also wise.




(2) Using the Conjuntions but,  yet,  neverthless ; as ,

       *) Simple.          :   In spite of his riches, he is unhappy.
           Compound    :   He is very rich, but still he is unhappy.



          Simple.           :   Notwithstanding his sorrow, he is hopeful.
          Compound    :   He is sorrowful but yet hopeful.


          Simple            :   In the face of many  obstacles he persevered.
          Compound     :  He met with many obstacles, nevertheless he persevered.



(3) Using the Conjunctions or, either...or,  otherwise; as,


      *) Simple           :    You must confess your fault to escape being fined.
          Compound    :    You must confess your fault or you will be fined.


          Simple            :    To avoid punishment you must apologize.
          Compound     :    Either you must apologize, or you will be punished.


          Simple             :    You must run away at once to escape being caught.
          Compound      :    You must run away at once otherwise you will be caught.







2. Conversion of Compound Sentences into Simple Sentences

477. Compound Sentences may be changed into Simple Sentences in the following ways :--

       (1) By substituting a Participle for a Finite Verb ; as,

                  Compound    :  He took his hat and set off.
                  Simple           :  Taking his hat, he set off.

                 
                  Compound     :  The sun rose and the fog disappeared.
                  Simple            :   The sun having risen, the fog disappeared.


                 Compound     :   He finished his work and returned home.
                 Simple            :   Having finished his work, he returned home.



      ( 2 ) By substituting a Preposition, etc., for a Clause ; as ,

                  Compound             :     He not only made a promise, but kept it too.
                  Simple                    :     Besides making a promise he kept it.


                  Compound            :     He shaved himself and then took his bath.
                  Simple                   :     After shaving himself, he took his bath.


                  Compound           :      You must not be late or you will be fined.
                  Simple                  :       In the event of your being late, you will be fined.



      (3) By substituting an Infinitive for a Clause ; as,

                   Compound          :       You must work hard or you will not win the first prize.
                   Simple                 :        You must work hard to win the first prize.


                   Compound          :       Either you must confess your fault or you will be punished.
                   Simple                 :       To escape punishment, you must confess your fault.







( 3 ) Conversion of Simple Sentences into Complex Sentences

478. A Simple Sentence can be changed into a Complex Sentence by expanding a word or
        a phrase into a Subordinate Clause ( Noun, Adjective or Adverb.).


                                         1. Noun Clause

    Simple.         :      We heard of her failure.
    Complex      :       We heard that she had failed.


    Simple          :       I do not know the day of his death
    Complex       :      I do not know when he died.

    Simple          :       We all know the reason of his popularity.
    Complex      :        We all know why he is popular.

   
    Simple          :        The time of his coming no one knows.
    Complex      :         When he will come no one knows.


   Simple          :        She hoped to win the first prize.
   Complex      :        She hoped that she would win the first prize.





                                     2. Adjective Clause

     Simple       :      He is a man of his word.
     Complex    :     He is a man who keeps his word.


    Simple        :      A man of prudence is respected by all.
    Complex    :      A man who is prudent is respected by all.


    Simple       :       A liar is seldom trusted.
    Complex    :      A person who tells lies is seldom trusted.


   Simple         :      The reason of her failure is known to all.
   Complex      :      The reason why she failed is known to all.


   Simple         :       He told us the time of his arrival.
   Complex      :      He told us the time when he would arrive.





                                 3. Adverb Clause

   Simple        :     You may go anywhere.
   Complex    :      You may go wherever you like.


   Simple       :      At sunset he returned home.
   Complex   :      When the sun set he returned home.


  Simple       :       Do it to the best of your ability.
  Complex    :      Do it as well as you can.


  Simple      :        On seeing the snake I ran away.
  Complex   :       As soon as I saw the snake, I ran away.


  Simple      :       He was absent  on account of illness.
  Complex  :       He was absent because he was ill.


  Simplex      :     The news is too good to be true.
  Complex    :     The news is so good that is cannot be true.


   Simple      :      Without your help I can do nothing.
   Complex   :      Unless you help me I can do nothing.





4. Conversion of Complex Sentences into Simple Sentences

479. A Complex Sentence can be changed into a Simple Sentence by converting a Clause
        ( Noun, Adjective or Adverb ) into a phrase or word.




                                 1. Noun Clause

Complex   :   He admitted that he had done wrong.
Simple.      :   He admitted his fault.


Complex   :   He pleaded that he was not guilty.
Simple       :   He pleaded not guilty.


Complex   :   That you should be present is essential.
Simple       :   Your presence is essential.


Complex   :   No one knows when he died.
Simple       :   No one knows the day of his death.


Complex   :   Tell me where your brother lives.
Simple       :   Tell me the address of your brother.


Complex   :   What he spoke on that occasion was unworthy of him.
Simple       :   His speech on that occasion was unworthy of him.




                                 2. Adjective Clause

Complex   :   People who work hard prosper in the world.
Simple       :   Hard-working people prosper in the world.


Complex   :   He is a man who possesses great courage.
Simple       :   He is a very courageous man.


Complex   :   We saw the place where Tagore was born.
Simple       :   We saw the birthplace of Tagore.


Complex   :   The man who wrote this book was a poor man.
Simple       :   The author of this book was a poor man.


Complex   :   Delhi, which is the capital of India, is situated on the Jamuna.
Simple       :   Delhi, the capital of India, is situated on the Jamuna.


Complex   :   This is the place where the rebels meet.
Simple       :   This is the rebels meeting-place.


Complex   :   Time which is once lost is lost for ever.
Simple       :   Time once lost is lost for ever.






                               3. Adverb Clause

Complex   :   He was pleased that he had won a prize.
Simple       :   He was pleased at having won a prize.


Complex   :   He is so exhausted that he cannot walk.
Simple       :   He is too exhausted to walk.


Complex   :   I was wonder-struck when I heard her saying this
Simple       :   I was wonder-struck to hear her saying this.


Complex   :   We eat that we may live.
Simple       :   We eat to live.


Complex   :   When he had finished his work, he went out to play.
Simple       :   Having finished his work, he went out to play.


Complex   :   Because she was ill she stayed at home.
Simple       :   Owing to her illness she stayed at home.






5. Conversion of Compound Sentences into Complex Sentences

480. It is possible to change a Compound Sentence into a Complex Sentence by turning 
        one of the Co-ordinate Clauses into a Subordinate Clause.


Compound   :   Spare the road and spoil the child.
Complex       :   If you spare the road, you spoil the child.


Compound   :   Work hard or you will fail.
Complex       :   Unless you work hard, you will fail.


Compound   :   He did not work hard ; therefore he failed.
Complex       :   He failed because he did not work hard.


Compound   :   He is poor, but honest.
Complex       :   Although he is poor, he is honest.


Compound   :   He wishes to become rich ; therefore he works hard.
Complex       :   He works hard that he may become rich.


Compound   :  keep quiet or you will be fined.
Complex       :  Unless you keep quiet, you will be fined.


Compound   :   He heard the news, and set off at once.
Complex       :   When he heard the news he set off at once.





6. Conversion of Complex Sentences into Compound Sentences

481. We can convert a Complex Sentence into a Compound Sentence by changing the
        Subordinate Clause into a Co-ordinate Clause.



Complex       :   I am certain that he has made a mistake.
Compound   :   He has made a mistake, and of this I am certain.


Complex       :   I have found the pen that I had lost.
Compound   :   I had lost a pen, but I have found it.


Complex       :   If you do not work hard you will not pass.
Compound   :   You must work hard or you will not pass.


Complex       :   Unless you study regularly, you will make no progress.
Compound   :   Study regularly or you will make no progress.


Complex       :   He works hard that he may become rich.
Compound   :   He aims at becoming rich and works hard.


Complex       :   As soon as he saw the lion, he ran away.
Compound   :   He saw the lion, and at once he ran away.





7. Interchange of principal and Subordinate Clauses

482. Study the following examples :---


1. No sooner did the sun rise than the fog disappeared.
    The fog disappeared as the soon as the sun rose.


2. Unless you confess your guilt, you will be punished.
    Confess your guilt that you may not be punished.


3. He is not such a wise man as he was reputed to be.
    He was reputed to be a wiser man than he is.


4. My coat was not returned until it had been washed.
    My coat had been washed before it was returned.