CLAUSES

                            1. ADVERB CLAUSES

418. Study the groups of words in italics in the following sentences :--

       1. They started at dawn. [ Started when?]
       2. They started when morning came. [Started when?]

      (*) In sentence 1, the group of words in italics, at dawn, does the work of an Adverb 
                              and it's called an Adverb Phrase. It tells us when the action was done.

      (*) In sentence 2, the group of words in italics, when morning came,also modifies the
           Verb started and so does the work of an Adverb.But it is not an Adverb Phrase.
            It has a Subject ( morning ) and a Predicate ( came when ). So it is a Clause, and
            since it does the work of an Adverb, it is called an Adverb Clause.





419. Study the following sentences :---

       1). On her return to US we asked her many questions.
       2). When she returned to US we asked her many questions.

       (*) We notice that the Adverb Phrase, on her return to US, is equivalent in meaning
             to the Adverb Clause, when she returned to US, and can therefore be replaced
             by it.




                           2. Adjective Clauses

420). Study the groups of words in italics in the following sentences :-

         1). The table with a broken leg is Mohan's.            [ Which table?]
         2). The table which has a broken leg is Mohan's.   [ Which table?]

          (*) The first group of words, with a broken leg, describes the table ; that is, it 
               qualifies the Noun table, and does the work of an Adjective. It is what we call an
               Adjective Phrase.

         (*) The second group of words, which has a broken leg, also describes the table, and
               so does the work of an Adjective. But since it has a Subject and a Predicate of its
               own, it is an Adjective Clause.






421). Read the following sentences :--

         1). A man of courage is respected everywhere.
         2). A man who is courageous is respected everywhere.

         (*) Here the Adjective Phrase of courage is equivalent in meaning to the Adjective
              Clause, who is courageous, and can therefore be replaced by it.







                            3. Noun Clauses

422. Study the groups of words in italics in the following sentences :---

        1). They expected to win the match.  [ Expected what ?]
        2). They expected that they would win the match. [ Expected what ?]

        (*) The first group of words, to win the match , is the Object of the Verb expected.
              It therefore does the work of a Noun, and since it has no Subject and no Predicate
              of its own, it is a Noun Phrase.

        (*) The second group of words, that they would win the match, is also the Object of the
              Verb expected and so does the work of a Noun. But as it has a Subject and a
              Predicate of its own, it is called a Noun Clause.




423. Examine the following sentences :--

        1). He hopes to win the first prize.
        2). He hopes that he will win the first prize.

        (*) In these sentences, the Noun Phrase, to win the first prize, is equivalent in meaning 
              to the Noun Clause, that he will win the first prize, and can therefore be replaced 
              by it.
                

PHRASES

412. A Phrase is a group of words acting as a Noun, Adjective or Adverb in a sentence.It 
        does not contain a Finite Verb but may contain an Infinite Verb ( Participle, Infinitive,
        Gerund ). In itself it cannot make complete sense, but can have meaning only through
        its relation to some part of the sentence in which it stands;as,

        1). The writer was a man of great wealth.
        2). He was a young man of great promise.
        3). It was a scene of great beauty.
        4). I shot an arrow into the air.
        
        (*) The words in italics are Phrases.



                              1. Adjective Phrases

413. Sometimes a group of words does the work of an Adjective. Now read the following
        pairs of sentences :---

        1.  (a) The French navy was defeated.
             (b) The navy of France was defeated.

       2.   (a) The judge was a generous man.
             (b) The judge was a man of a generous nature.

       3.   (a) A valuable document was found yesterday.
             (b) A document of great value was found yesterday.


       (*) In each of the above pairs of sentences, we have first a single word qualifying the
            Noun and then a group of words qualifying the same Noun.

       (*) For instance, the group of words of France describes the navy. It,therefore,does 
             the work of an Adjective , and is called an Adjective Phrase.

                                 
                                          

                                  2. Adverb Phrases

415. We have seen that sometimes a group of words does the work of an Adverb. 
        Examine the following pairs of sentences :---

1.  (a) She answered rudely. ( How ?)
     (b) She answered in a rude manner. ( How ?)

2.  (a) He was a magistrate then. ( When ?)
     (b) He was a magistrate in those days. ( When ?)

3.  (a) God is everywhere. ( Where?)
     (b) God is in every place. ( Where ?)

     (*) In each of the above pairs of sentences, we have first a single word ( an Adverb )
          modifying a Verb, and then a group of words modifying the same Verb.

     (*) For instance, the group of words, in a rude manner, tells us how she answered.It,
          therefore, modifies the Verb answered. Such a group of words that does the work
          of an Adverb is called an Adverb Phrase.





416. Study the following table of Adverbs and the Adverb Phrases that are
        equivalent to them :---

                                  3. Noun Phrases

417. Study carefully the following sentences :-

        1. She loves to paint her thoughts.
        2. I enjoy playing cards.
        3. To know one's self is a difficult task.
        4. Thinking good thoughts makes a good man.

   (*) The italicised phrases in the above sentences are used as Nouns ( Subject or
         Object to Verb ). They are, therefore , called Noun Phrases.





                   

The Complement

406. Some Intransitive Verbs express in themselves a full meaning. Such are called the
        Verbs of Complete Predication; as,

        1. Dogs bark. 
        2. Birds sing. 
        3. The moon shines. 
        4. The wind blows.



407. But some Intransitive Verbs do not express a full meaning. They require some word
        or words to be added to them to make the sense complete. Such Verbs are called the
        Verbs of Incomplete Predication ; as,

         (*) The boy seemed unhappy.

          If we say simply ' The boy seemed', we do not make complete sense.The Intransitive
          Verb seemed requires some words or words to make the sense complete.What is thus
          added to such a Verb to make its meaning complete is called a Complement.

          (*) The Complement of an Intransitive Verb always describes the Subject, and is
                therefore called a Subjective Complement.



408. Consider the Predicates in the following sentences :-

        1. John is a teacher.
        2. The rose smells sweet.
        3. It is I.
        4. Sonia went running.
        5. This house is to let.
        6. Your book is here.
        7. The house is in a ruined condition.

           (*) From the above table , it is clear that ----

                 in 1, the Complement is a Noun;
                 in 2, the Complement is an Adjective;
                 in 3, the Complement is a Pronoun;
                 in 4, the Complement is a Participle;
                 in 5, the Complement is an Infinitive;
                 in 6, the Complement is an Adverb;
                 in 7, the Complement is a Phrase.


(*) NOTE :-- To be is the most important Verb of Incomplete Prediction. Except when
                       it denotes existence , as, ' God is', it always requires a Complement.
                       Other Verbs of Incomplete Prediction are appear,seem,grow,live,look,
                       become,etc.






409. Some Transitive Verbs require both a Complement and an Object to complete the
        sense;as,

         'The President appointed Sinha Governor.'

          (*) In this sentence Sinha is the Object of the Transitive Verb appointed. Is the
               sense complete ? No ; the Verb appointed here requires a word  Governor to
               make the sense complete . 

          (*) The word Governor that completes the meaning of the Verb appointed  is 
                called a Complement. And since it refers to the Object Sinha, it is called an 
                Objective Complement.



410. Examine the Predicates in the following sentences :--

        1) They made him King.
        2) The Judge found him innocent.
        3) She kept me waiting.
        4) This made her repent.
        5) The sad news plunged her into the deepest grief.

              (*) From the above table,it is clear that----

               in 1, the Objective Complement is a Noun;
               in 2, the Objective Complement is an Adjective ;
               in 3, the Objective Complement is a Participle;
               in 4, the Objective Complement is an Infinitive ;
               in 5, the Objective Complement is a Phrase.



411. So we see that a Simple Sentence has a structure consisting of Subject ( its Attribute )
        +Verb+ ( Direct Object, Indirect  Object, Predicative Adjunct to Object, Adverbal
        Qualification, etc.)

        (*) Study how the following sentences have been constructed :--

        1). A thing ( of beauty ) is ( a joy for ever )
        2). The horse ( terrified by lightning ) ran away ( at full speed ).
        3). The teacher distributed ( sweets, to all the boys in the class ).
        4). All the students elected him ( unanimously , Secretary of the Student's Union )

DIRECT AND INDIRECT OBJECTS

405. Sometimes Transitive Verbs take two Objects :-

        (1) the Direct Object, and           (2) the Indirect Object.

        If we say , ' Maria gave  a book ,'  the Noun book is called the Object of the Verb
        gave. But if we say, ' Maria gave me a book,' the word me is called the Indirect
        Object of the Verb gave. So the Object relating to a thing is called the Direct Object ;
        that relating to a person is called the Indirect Object .

        

            (*) Study the following examples :-

             1. She promised me a reward.
             2. He taught us French.
             3. Mother bought Sonia a toy-car.

THE FORMATION OF A SIMPLE SENTENCE

396. We have already learnt that every sentence consists 
         of two parts :

         1). The Subject : The Subject denotes the person or thing about which is
                                     something is said.

         2). The Predicate : The Predicate is what is said about the Subject.




397.  @) A Simple Sentence is one which contains only one Subject and one Predicate.
        @) The Subject must contain a Noun or a Pronoun and the Predicate must contain
               a verb.
        @) Sometimes the Subject is omitted and then you may get one-word sentences.

             

             *)   Halt!       Who goes there ?
             *)   Listen !   You can't please everybody.
             *)   Wait !      You will soon hear from her.

     *) Then there are sentences of two words--- just a Noun and an Intransitive Verb :

        1) Birds fly       3) Fire burns.
        2) Dogs bark.   4)  Time flies.

       But all sentences do not consist of two words alone.There are usually more than
       two words in a sentence.

It will be noticed that the Subject may consist of one word or several words.
Thus, in sentence  

(1),  the Subject consists of one word, i.e., the Noun hens; 
(5)   it consists of four words of which the most important word is the Noun Queen.

 The main word in the subject ( e.g.,    Hens, mother, stone, things, Queen ) is called
 the Subject-word or Simple Subject.




                           

                                 1. The Subject

398. The Subject of a Sentence is always a Noun, or some word or words doing
        the work of a Noun. Thus the Subject may be :--

1. A Noun : Birds fly in the air.
2. A Pronoun : He is the pillar of his country.
3. An Adjective used as a Noun : The righteous shall prosper.
4. A Noun-Infinitive : To err is human
5. A Gerund or Verbal Noun : Swimming is a good exercise.
6. A Phrase : Well begun is half done.


                    (*) Enlargement or Attribute (*)

399. The Subject-word is often qualified by an Adjective, or some word or 
        words having the limiting force of an Adjective which is called its 
        Enlargement or Attribute ; as,

      1. An Adjective : An honest man is liked by all.
      
     2. A Noun or Pronoun in Apposition : William, the Conqueror, ascended the
                                                                   throne. The King himself was present.
     
    3. A Noun in the Possessive Case or a Possessive Adjective : My brother's
                                                                      book is lost. Her lips began to burn.
    
     4. A Preposition with its Object : A man of virtue (= a virtuous man) will
                                                          never tell a lie.
   
    5. A Participle or Verbal Adjectives : Barking dogs seldom bite.
   
   6. A Gerundial Infinitive : A desire to please wins friends.
   
   7. An Adjective Phrase : A judge, cruel in his conduct, is desired.
  
   8.  Prepositional Phrase  : Birds of the same feather flock together.





                           2. The Predicate

400). The Predicate consists of a word or words by which something is said about
         the Subject.

       *) When the Predicate consists of only one word, the word is always a Verb,
            because we cannot say anything without a Verb.

      *) When the Predicate consists of several words, the chief word in it always
          a Verb.





401. Extension or Adverbial Qualification. Just as the Subject word may be qualified
        by an Adjective or a word or group of words doing the work of an Adjective, the
       Verb in the Predicate may be enlarged, extended, or modified by an Adverb or 
       any word or words doing the work of an Adverb. Such words or phrases are 
       called its Extension or Adverbial Qualification; as, 

      1. An Adverb : The soldiers fought bravely.
      2. An Adverbial Phrase : They walked side by side.
      3. A Participle : He went away broken and disappointed. They went away smiling.
      4. Gerundial Infinitive : They all stopped to stare.
      5. A Preposition with Object : she spoke in a passion.
      6. An Adverbial Object : He walked a mile . He wept all day.
      7. An Absolute Phrase : The sun having set , we returned home.







                                         3. The Object

402 Sometimes the Verb in the Predicate is a Transitive Verb, that is, a Verb which
       requires an Object to complete its sense.
               
       (*) Example :- if i Say, "John broke "  I do not make complete sense.
                                You want to know what John broke.But the sentence
                                " John broke a slate " is complete. In other words, the Verb
                                 broke requires an Object , a slate, to complete the sense.







403. The Object-word, like the Subject-word,is a Noun or some word or words doing the
         work of a Noun. Thus,the Object-word in a Simple Sentence may be :-

       1. A Noun : Birds build nests.
       2. A pronoun : All know her.
       3. An Adjective used as a Noun : We should help the poor.
       4. An Infinitive : Learn to labor.
       5. A Gerund : Diana loves dancing.
       6. A Phrase : The Minister promised to look into the matter.






404. Enlargement or Attribute of the Object. The Object-word may have an Attribute 
                                                                           like the Subject-word;as,

        1. An Adjective : The King caught a large tiger.
        2. A Noun or Pronoun in Apposition : I know Maria, your sister.
        3. A Noun in the Possessive Case or a Possessive Adjective : Harry lost Barry's 
                                                                                        books.She lost her watch.
        4. A Prepositional Phrase : I met the master of the show.
        5. A Participle : I heard her singing.
        6. An Infinitive : Mohan has a house to let
        7. A Participal Phrase : I saw her walking in the garden.
        8. An Infinitive Phrase : He told Sita the course to be followed by her.

NEGATIVE SENTENCES

391. Study how a negative sentence can be written in two ways :

1).     (a) I do not know either Sophie or Angelina.
         (b) I know neither Sophie nor Angelina.


2).     (a) She cannot read or write.
         (b) She can neither read nor write.


3).     (a) We did not meet anybody there.
         (b) We met nobody there.


4).     (a) They had not anything to eat.
         (b)  They had nothing to eat.


5).     (a) We have not any work to do.
         (b) We have no work to do.


6).     (a) I cannot bear this pain any longer.
         (b) I can bear this pain no longer.



(*) Note :- In a Negative Sentence only one negative is used. Two negatives make 
                  an affirmative.

    For Example :- *)" He is Unable to do this work" is a Negative Sentence.
                                    But if we use " not " , it becomes affirmative ; as,

                   Exercise 132. Make the following Affirmative Sentences Negative :-

  
              (*)  Questions with " There " and " It " (*)

1). Is there any letter for me ?

2). Are there any mangoes in the basket ?

3). Were there many people at the concert ?

4). Has there been heavy rain today ?

5). Will there be a holiday tomorrow ?

6). Is it raining hard ?

7). Is it true that she is ill ?

8). Was it true that you were late ?

9.) Was it good on her part to betray her husband ?

10). Will it be wise to go without her ?



                         
                  (*) Answering Questions (*)

393). Consider the different answers that may be made to the following question :-

         *) Example :- Did your sister pass the examination ?
                                    
         *)  The four possible answers are :-
          
           (a)  { Yes, my sister passed the examination.            
                 { No, my sister did not pass the examination.    

           (b)  { Yes, she passed the examination.
                 { No, she did not pass the examination.

            (c) { Yes, she passed it.
                 { No, she didn't pass it.

             (d) { Yes, she did.
                  { No, she didn't.

           (*)  The long and complete answers as in (a) are formal and unnatural.In spoken 
                 English,the short answers as in (d) are the most natural and common.

          (*) Other Examples are :-

                { Can you lend me ten rupees?
                { Yes, I can.   ( Instead of : can lend you ten rupees.)

                { Have you read this story ?
                { No, I haven't.  ( Instead of : haven't read this story.)

                { Does he like oranges ?
                { Yes, he does.   ( Instead of : like oranges. )

                { Who discovered America ?
                { Columbus did.  ( Instead of : discovered America. )

                { Which boys work hardest ?
                { Harry and Tony do.  ( Instead of : work hardest. )

                { How much of it was destroyed ?
                { Half of it was.      ( Instead of : was destroyed. )





                 (*) Framing Questions for the Answers (*)

394 ) . Sometimes you are asked to frame a question to fit an answer.The nature of the
            question can be gathered from the words printed in bold type.

         1. I met an old woman in the park last night.
         2. Who (m) did you meet in the park last night ?

         1. I met an old woman in the park last night.
         2. Where did you meet an old woman last night ?

         1. I met an old woman in the park last night ?
         2. When did you mean an old woman in the park ?





                               (*) Question Tags (*)

395. In English, people often make a statement and then add a little question on to the
        end of it.

      *) We frequently hear people saying things like :
         
          1) Peter works hard, doesn't he?
          2) She came home late, didn't she ?
          3) He doesn't like reading, does he?
          4) She can't see very well, can she ?

       

         *) This type of sentence--- a statement followed by a little question called a
           " Question Tag"--- is generally used when we want the listener to confirm
              what we have said.

              @) Notice that the first and second statements :
                    1) Peter works hard
                    2) She came home late
  
                    are followed by negative Question Tags :
                          1) doesn't he?
                          2) didn't she ?

               

               @) The third and fourth statements :
                        3) He doesn't like reading
                        4) She can't see very well

                        are followed by positive Question tags :
                            3) Does he ?
                            4) can she ?

            So we see that when the statement is positive the Tag is negative;
                                     when the statement is negative, the Tag is positive.


        

(*) More examples:

                                  (A)
       
       @) You are coming tomorrow, aren't you ? 
       @) She speaks English, doesn't she ?
       @) You know her well, don't you ?
       @) You have met her before, haven't you ?
       @) He came early this morning, didn't he ?
       @) She will visit us tomorrow, won't she ?   




                                   (B)

       @) He can't understand English, can he ?
       @) You should't tell lies, should you ?
       @) He hasn't finished his work yet, has he ?
       @) She doesn't look well, does she ?
       @) She didn't tell lies, did she ?
       @) She won't help us, will she ?